What is not one of the factors that are used to identify and distinguish ranks of global cities?1/20/2024 ![]() ![]() Cities’ total outputs increase more than proportionately with increases in city size, suggesting that inhabitants of larger cities are, on average, better off economically. In recent years, researchers from across disciplines have identified striking and seemingly universal relationships between city size and various urban quantities 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. This result also shows that agglomeration effects benefit urban elites the most, with the majority of city dwellers partially excluded from the socio-economic benefits of growing cities. Our findings demonstrate that urban scaling is in large part a story about inequality in cities, implying that the causal processes underlying the heavier tails in larger cities must be considered in explanations of urban scaling. Providing explanatory depth to these findings, we identify a mechanism-city size-dependent cumulative advantage-that constitutes an important channel through which differences in the size of tails emerge. We find that the tails of within-city distributions and their growth by city size account for 36–80% of previously reported scaling effects, and 56–87% of the variance in scaling between indicators of varying economic complexity. Here we use micro-level data from Europe and the United States on interconnectivity, productivity and innovation in cities. Human networking and productivity exhibit heavy-tailed distributions, with some individuals contributing disproportionately to city totals. ![]() However, they have overlooked the stark inequalities that exist within cities. ![]() ![]() Theories of urban scaling have demonstrated remarkable predictive accuracy at aggregate levels. ![]()
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